English Institute of Sport, St. Mary's College, Twickenham, UK. Daniel.Cleather@eis2win.co.uk
It has been established that, in the sports of Olympic weightlifting (OL)
and powerlifting (PL), the relationship between lifting performance and body
mass is not linear. This relationship has been frequently studied in OL, but
the literature on PL is less extensive. In this study, PL performance and
body mass, for both men and women, was examined by using data from the
International Powerlifting Federation World Championships during 1995-2004.
Nonlinear regression was used to apply 7 models (including allometric,
polynomial, and power models) to the data. The results of this study
indicate that the relationship between PL performance and body mass can be
best modeled by the equation y = a - bx(-c), where y is the weight lifted
(in kg) in the squat, bench press, or deadlift, x is the body mass of the
lifter (in kg), and a, b, and c are constants. The constants a, b, and c are
determined by the type of lift (squat, bench press, or deadlift) and the
gender of the lifter and were obtained from the regression analysis.
Inspection of the plots of raw residuals (actual performance minus predicted
performance) vs. body mass revealed no body mass bias to this formula in
contrast to research into other handicapping formulas. This study supports
previous research that found a bias toward lifters in the intermediate
weight categories in allometric fits to PL data.
Health and Sport Science Dept., University of Dayton, OH 45469-1210, USA.
vanderbu@yar.udayton.edu
PURPOSE: Allometric modeling (AM) has been used to determine the world's
strongest body mass-adjusted man. Recently, however, AM was shown to
demonstrate body mass bias in elite Olympic weightlifting performance. A
second order polynomial (2OP) provided a better fit than AM with no body
mass bias for men and women. The purpose of this study was to apply both AM
and 2OP models to women's world powerlifting records (more a function of
pure strength and less power than Olympic lifts) to determine the optimal
model approach as well as the strongest body mass-adjusted woman in each
event. METHODS: Subjects were the 36 (9 per event) current women world
record holders (as of Nov., 1997) for bench press (BP), deadlift (DL), squat
(SQ), and total (TOT) lift (BP + DL + SQ) according to the International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF). RESULTS: The 2OP model demonstrated the
superior fit and no body mass bias as indicated by the coefficient of
variation and residuals scatterplot inspection, respectively, for DL, SQ,
and TOT. The AM for these three lifts, however, showed favorable bias toward
the middle weight classes. The 2OP and AM yielded an essentially identical
fit for BP. CONCLUSIONS: Although body mass-adjusted world records were
dependent on the model used, Carrie Boudreau (U.S., 56-kg weight class), who
received top scores in TOT and DL with both models, is arguably the world's
strongest woman overall. Furthermore, although the 2OP model provides a
better fit than AM for this elite population, a case can still be made for
AM use, particularly in light of theoretical superiority.
Department of Health and Sport Science, University of Dayton, OH 45469-1210,
USA. vanderbu@yar.udayton.edu
PURPOSE: Because maximal strength varies with body mass, the International
Powerlifting Federation (IPF) has adopted a method of adjusting powerlifting
events (bench press, BP; squat, SQ; deadlift, DL, and total lift (the sum of
BP, DL, and SQ), TOT) by body mass. This method, the Wilks formula,
multiplies one's lift by an index based on body mass so that lifters of
different size can be compared on the same event. The Wilks formula is not,
however, based on published data and has yet to be critically evaluated. The
purpose of this investigation, then, was to validate the Wilks formula.
METHODS: This was performed by 1) examining residuals bias to verify that
the adjusted score does, in fact, lead to no systematic bias based on body
mass and 2) by applying a more theoretically supportable allometric model to
the same data and comparing the fit with the Wilks approach. Subjects were
the current men's and women's world record holders as well as the top two
performers for each event in the IPF's 1996 and 1997 World Championships (a
total of 30 men and 27 women for each lift). RESULTS: Results of data
analysis regarding the Wilks formula indicate that: 1) there is no bias for
men's or women's BP and TOT; 2) there is a favorable bias toward
intermediate weight class lifters in the women's SQ with no bias for men's
SQ; and 3) there is a linear unfavorable bias toward heavier men and women
in the DL. Furthermore, the allometric approach indicated a bias against
light and heavy men and women which may be considered acceptable given that
half as many lifters are found in the lightest and heaviest weight classes
as in the intermediate weight classes. CONCLUSION: As used currently (BP and
TOT only), the Wilks formula appears to be a valid method to adjust
powerlifting scores by body mass.
Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia. gmarkov@ffk.hr
The purpose of this study was to examine 1) if lifting performance in both
the weightlifting (WL) and powerlifting (PL) scale with body mass (M) in
line with theory of geometric similarity, and 2) whether there are any
gender differences in the allometric relationship between lifting
performance and body size. This was performed by analyzing ten best WL and
PL total results for each weight class, except for super heavyweight,
achieved during 2000-2003. Data were analysed with the allometric and
second-order polynomial model, and detailed regression diagnostics was
applied in order to examine appropriateness of the models used. Results of
the data analyses indicate that 1) women's WL and men's PL scale for M in
line with theory of geometric similarity, 2) both WL and PL mass exponents
are gender-specific, probably due to gender differences in body composition,
3) WL and PL results scale differently for M possibly due to their
structural and functional differences. However, the obtained mass exponents
does not provide size-independent indices of lifting performances since the
allometric model exhibit a favourable bias toward middleweight lifters in
most lifting data analyzed. Due to possible deviations from presumption of
geometric similarity among lifters, future studies on scaling lifting
performance should use fat-free mass and height as indices of body size.
Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, University of Texas at
Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
PURPOSE: One approach to studying the effects of aging on physiological
functional capacity (PFC) in humans is to analyze the peak physical
performance of trained athletes with increasing age. The primary aim of the
present study was to determine weightlifting and powerlifting performance
with increasing age in both men and women. METHODS: We performed a
retrospective analysis of top age-group weightlifting and powerlifting
records compiled from the U.S. Weightlifting and U.S. Powerlifting
Organizations. RESULTS: Regression analyses showed that in both men and
women weightlifting and powerlifting performance declined curvilinearly and
linearly, respectively. The rate and the overall magnitude of declines in
performance with age were markedly greater (P < 0.05) in weightlifting than
in powerlifting. The rates of age-related decline in muscular power were not
different between upper body (bench press) and lower body (squat). Similarly,
the age-related declines were not different between snatch and clean and
jerk in weightlifting events. The magnitude of the declines with age was
greater (P < 0.05) in women than in men in weightlifting; no such
sex-related differences were observed in powerlifting performance.
CONCLUSIONS: The findings in this cross-sectional study indicate that 1)
peak anaerobic muscular power, as assessed by peak lifting performance,
decreases progressively even from earlier ages than previously thought; 2)
the overall magnitude of decline in peak muscular power appears to be
greater in tasks requiring more complex and powerful movements; 3) the
age-related rates of decline are greater in women than in men only in the
events that require more complex and explosive power; and 4) upper- and
lower-body muscular power demonstrate similar rate of decline with age.
Excercise Science Department, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA.
dthe@syr.edu
PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine previously collected
performance scores from the 2000 World Masters Weightlifting Championships
to 1). determine the extent to which age and body mass are related to and
predictive of indirect estimates of absolute and relative muscular power,
and 2). assess possible gender differences in these associations. METHODS:
Dependent variables were absolute load (ABS = heaviest snatch [kg] +
heaviest clean and jerk [kg]) and relative load (REL = ABS [kg]/body mass
[kg]), representing indirect estimates of absolute and relative muscular
power, respectively. Predictor variables were age (yr) and body mass (kg).
Linear regression and various diagnostic procedures were used to analyze the
data. RESULTS: The linear model provided an adequate fit for the data
because no departures from the usual assumptions of normally distributed
variables and homoscedastic error variance were observed. All predictor
variables were significantly (P < 0.05) predictive of the dependent
variables, but the magnitude of associations (e.g., R(ABS|BM) = 0.18 among
females vs R(ABS|BM) = 0.57 among males) and extent of predictive ability
(e.g., R(adj)2 for regression of ABS on age and body mass was 0.18-0.58
among females vs 0.74-0.83 among males) were significantly (P < 0.05) higher
among males versus females. CONCLUSION: The extent to which age and body
mass explain differences in muscular power differs between female and male
masters weightlifters, but the rate of decline (%.yr-1) in power with
advancing age is similar and is in agreement with previous reports for world
record holders, other masters athletes, and healthy, untrained individuals,
suggesting the importance of the aging process itself over physical activity
history.
Krannert Institute of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, Indiana University
School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana 46202, USA. lieford@iupui.edu
To assess factors that limit human muscle strength and growth, we examined
the relationship between performance and body dimensions in the world
weightlifting champions of 1993-1997. Weight lifted varied almost exactly
with height squared (Ht(2.16)), suggesting that muscle mass scaled almost
exactly with height cubed (Ht(3.16)) and that muscle cross-sectional area
was closely correlated with body height, possibly because height and the
numbers of muscle fibers in cross section are determined by a common factor
during maturation. Further height limitations of muscle strength were shown
by only one male champion >/=183 cm and no female champions >/=175 cm. The
ratio of weight lifted to mean body cross-sectional area was approximately
constant for body-weight classes </=83 kg for men and </=64 kg for women and
decreased abruptly for higher weight classes. These findings suggest a
nearly constant fraction of body mass devoted to muscle in lighter lifters
and a lesser fraction in heavier lifters. Analysis also suggests that
contractile tissue comprises approximately 30% less body mass in female
champions.
Coaching and Sports Science, United States Olympic Committee, Colorado
Springs, CO 80909, USA. mike.stone@usoc.org
PURPOSE: The primary objective was to assess the relationship of maximum
strength to weightlifting ability using established scaling methods. The
secondary objective was to compare men and women weightlifters on strength
and weightlifting ability. METHODS: Two correlational observations were
carried out using Pearson's r. In the first observation (N = 65) the
relationship of dynamic maximum strength (one-repetition maximum (1RM) squat)
was compared with weightlifting ability; in the second observation (N = 16),
isometric maximum strength (midthigh pull) was studied. Scaling methods for
equating maximum strength and weightlifting results were used (load x (Ht),
load x kg, load x lbm(-1), allometric, and Sinclair formula) to assess the
association between measures of maximum strength and weightlifting
performance. RESULTS: Using scaled values; correlations between maximum
strength and weightlifting results were generally strong in both
observations (e.g., using allometric scaling for the 1RM squat vs the 1RM
snatch: r = 0.84, N = 65). Men were stronger than women (e.g., 1RM squat, N
= 65: men = 188.1 +/- 48.6 kg; women = 126.7 +/- 28.3 kg); differences
generally held when scaling was applied (e.g., 1RM squat scaled with the
Sinclair formula: men = 224.7 +/- 36.5 kg; women = 144.2 +/- 25.4 kg).
CONCLUSIONS: When collectively considering scaling methods, maximum strength
is strongly related to weightlifting performance independent of body mass
and height differences. Furthermore, men are stronger than women even when
body mass and height are obviated by scaling methods.
